Rites of Passage and Seventh-day Adventists in Southern Africa

Introduction

Rites of passage are usually well-prepared occasions that are planned to mark the transitions to different life stages. These stages include birth, initiation into adulthood, marriage, death, and burial in most cultures. These rites can assume either a secular or religious orientation. In a religious setting, the observance of these rites also serves as a platform for effective inculcation and reinforcement of cultural values. These values are steeped in specific worldviews, and in the observation of these rites an individual is exposed to the basic tenets of the given worldview.

The traditional ways of observing these rites goes beyond the immediate family. They involve both the extended family and the immediate community. The localization of these events to the immediate family in the contemporary society is a growing phenomenon, but has not always been the case. In contemporary society, events such as birthdays and even weddings are celebrated by family members and close friends. This is contrary to the traditional observance of such rites which usually involves the whole community or village. In both secular and religious contexts, the observance of these rites is gender inclusive. The actual celebration is usually gender specific and varies from one culture to the other.

Rites of passage play a very critical and central role in the African cultures in general. These cultures, different as they are, are steeped in a worldview that is essentially religious and spiritual in its orientation and content. In the African context, these rites are seen as sacred and compulsory, and demand meticulous and detailed observance. It is for this reason that this paper assumes a religio-cultural perspective of the rites of passage and their significance within that context. This religious context includes both the African Traditional Religion as well as biblical spirituality.

The above objective does not in any way posit that the non-religious observance of these rites is irrelevant or non-existent. In pluralistic and secular societies, however, such rites are observed with no apparent and significant meaning attached to them. This means that the observance of such rites is not compulsory. It is the sacralized observance that renders these rites significantly meaningful. It will be shown that such rites, within the African traditional context or African worldview, are observed with solemnity and dignity, and are essentially attached to some basic tenets of this worldview. In the biblical context, rites such as baptism are perceived as non-negotiable and thus compulsory to those wishing to be members of the church, as can be seen in this Markan text; “He who believes and is baptized shall be saved…”¹

In seeking to explore this subject, the paper confines itself to the following areas: Firstly, the religious significance of the rites of passage within the African worldview. Secondly, the biblical evaluation of the meaning and significance attached to the rites of passage in the African religious context. Some guidelines in the appropriation of the rites of passage into African Adventism will be given.

The Religious Significance of the Rites of Passage within the African Worldview

There is a unique appreciation of the rites of passage within each given religious context, be it African Traditional Religion or biblical spirituality. As noted above, the rites of passage play a two-fold role: to mark the transition between life’s stages and to reinforce values of a particular culture or worldview. The secularization of these rites has inadvertently led to the reduction of their significance and symbolism. In a religious context, rites of passage point to something bigger than the mere ritual. They carry a rich symbolic or sacramental meaning that can only be appreciated within a given religio-cultural context or worldview. It has been correctly observed that the observance of these rites, especially in the African traditional religious setting creates peace and harmony between the living-dead and their living descendants. This observation is particularly cogent in a worldview where ancestors play a central role. In such, there is a clear appreciation of the curse and misfortune that will befall those who fail to observe the rites as they should.

In the Bible, it can be observed that the clear connection between Christ and the other two persons of the trinity was made manifest during the baptism of Christ (Matthew 3:16-17). This rite of baptism inaugurated Christ’s ministry and enhanced His identity as the Messiah. Christian baptism carries a rich symbolic meaning as can be seen in scriptural texts such as Romans 6. In the Adventist Church, baptism is also viewed as an entrance into church membership. As such, people who are not baptized are not accepted into the leadership of the church.

Rites of passage take on a very deep spiritual and religious significance in a religious context. They carry within themselves the aura of sacredness. In the African worldview, as well as in biblical spirituality, these rites punctuate life at specific intervals from birth to death. The accompanying ceremonies are an apt reminder of the privileges and responsibilities of the newly acquired social and spiritual status. Driver makes a very poignant and insightful comment when he states that rites of passage are performed not simply to mark transitions but to affect them.² This raises the issues of sacramentalism and symbolism. In some Christian denominational persuasions, rituals are perceived to have the ability to impart divine grace, and as such are viewed as sacraments. Rites may be viewed in a similar fashion, even in African Traditional Religion, especially when they are performed correctly. To some, these rites have a purely symbolic function with no ability to make any change and as such are dispensable. The symbolic meaning of circumcision is alluded to in Romans 2:26 as not being limited to the physical sign, but being a matter of the heart. These rites create the psychological context for the growth that is anticipated, such that without the rites one is less capable of exhibiting the necessary developmental growth.

According to Van Gennep, as quoted by Kasomo,³ these rites can be viewed as territorial since they reflect transition or movement from one social group to another, where one is expected to show some form of proof that will be evidence that the person has indeed moved from the previous social group and is qualified to be part of the new community. In the African cultures, rituals are not philosophically explained or even always clearly understood by the participants. This is not necessarily the case in Christianity, especially in the Adventist Church. Rites such as baptism are administered to adults who have the ability to appreciate its meaning and expectation. The crucial element in these rites is their correct observance, not so much their correct philosophical appreciation. It is also true that the rites have clear educational function since they are a platform used to inculcate different modes of thinking and being.⁴

Understanding the African Worldview

The religious observance of these rites cannot exist outside the meaning that a specific worldview imposes on them. Baptism as a rite finds its meaning within the confines of the biblical worldview. An appreciation of the worldview, be it biblical or African undoubtedly paves the way for a better understanding of the significance of the rites.

It is worth noting that while an African worldview is essentially spiritualistic, it is not a monolithic phenomenon exhibiting the same features throughout the continent. The African cosmology is densely populated with spirits and deities. Book titles such as West African Religion by Parrinder and The Religious System of Amazulu—a nation found in the southern Africa—tend to accentuate differences while celebrating the similarities. The view of human nature in the African worldview also paves the way, to a great extent, to a better understanding of the religious observance of these rites.

African Anthropology

It is generally believed in African anthropology that humans are more than the physical appearance. There is a spiritual part that continues to live even after the physical part has died.⁵ Human beings are not only made up of flesh, but also of spirit and soul; the body is susceptible to death and dying but the spirit or soul does not perish. According to Lugira, “when a person dies, his or her soul separates from the body and changes from being a soul to being a spirit.⁶

Being a spirit is viewed as a higher status to that of the living; the human attains a state of superhuman and enters a state of immortality when he dies.⁷ When people die physically, spirits are what remain. This is the ultimate state and destiny of man.⁸ The belief then is that as much as man is a mortal being, he has within himself a part which is immortal. Without this understanding there would be no space for the belief in the ontological existence of ancestors.

If the view is maintained that the main function of the rites of passage is to celebrate the different transitionary phases in one’s life, then burial as the passage into the next life is the last stage that must be celebrated. A superficial observation is sufficient to convince one that the failure to observe the preceding stages through appropriate rituals will render one incapable of qualifying for the last stage, which is that of an ancestor.

Centrality of Ancestors

Lugira makes a valid argument in his observation that “[w]hether African religion is based in Central Africa, Eastern Africa, Western Africa or Southern Africa, the belief in the Supreme Being and the superhuman beings are its cornerstones.”⁹ West African religion includes in its cosmology nature gods, which are rarely found in Bantu religion of eastern and southern Africa. Superhuman beings are the ancestors or living-dead who have assumed certain powers as compared to living human beings.

African Traditional Religion in Southern Africa is ancestor-centered. Ancestors permeate all aspects of life, directly or indirectly. African theologians have continued to argue for the relevance of ancestors in African Christianity. This shows the level of respect these theologians render to the cult of ancestors. African Christianity is to a large extent influenced by the African worldview. Most African theologians embrace a theological model that favors continuity between the African worldview and biblical worldview. The same theologians argue forcefully that without the recognition of the notion of ancestors, no proper African model of church can be possible.¹⁰

The African, based on this argument, is expected to institutionalize African rituals to maintain this balance between ancestors and Christ. Various African theologians writing from different cultural contexts from across the African continent converge on one salient point: No African Christianity can exist without a proper acknowledgement and recognition of ancestors.¹¹ These views seek to neutralize the dual religious consciousness that tends to produce a schizophrenic African Christian. African Christianity has long been plagued by the notion of one being a Christian during the day and an African at night. The solution proffered is that what is done in the African village must be celebrated in the church as ancestors and Christ are viewed as allies.

The appropriation of the African worldview into African Christianity has far-reaching implications. The meaning and significance attached to rites of passage in the African worldview are carried over to the African church. This means that African Christianity will look favorably at practices embedded in the observance of the rites of passage. Some of these practices have to do with the honoring of ancestors. Those advocating for a radical distinction between the African and Christian worldviews, especially in the area of ancestors, hold a different view of the meaning of the rites of passage and their observance.

Becoming an Ancestor

Ancestorhood is not just life after death, but one’s benevolent relationship with the living after his death. Life after death is accorded to everyone due to their being human, but ancestral status is a privilege granted to only those who meet certain qualifications. The point to be noted is that this status of Ancestorhood is “conferred by the living and it depends on their continued willingness to honour it.”¹² By continued willingness is meant the intentional retention of the departed in the memory of the living. This is done mostly by meticulously observing, amongst other things, the relevant rites of passage for each stage of life. The transition from life in this world to life in the world of the spirits has therefore to be negotiated and legitimized through the performance of an appropriate ritual organized and enacted by the living, which is the climax of all the rituals that the dead had observed during their life.¹³

Individuals who qualify to be crowned as ancestors are those who die at an old age, have offspring, have led a good moral life, and received the funeral rites when they died.¹⁴ The list excludes children, those who have not observed rites of initiation, the unmarried, and those without proper mortuary rites. All these stages of life, starting from birth, which is the first stage, to death, which is the last stage, are celebrated through relevant rites of passage. Children are automatically excluded since they have not had the opportunity of observing subsequent rites of passage accompanying the different life stages leading to old age.

One can qualify in all other areas, but if they have no children at the point of death, they are disqualified to serve as ancestors. The birth of a child, especially a male child in most patriarchal societies, is marked with great celebration that is seen as profoundly religious. It is through birth that parents are assured of their state of immortality. It is because of the religious importance of children that marriage is not a choice and is seen as one of the most important stages in the life of an African. Mbiti has observed that “those who die without getting married and without having children are completely cut off from human society. They become disconnected and become outcasts and lose all links with mankind.”¹⁵ Magesa narrates a ritual that is done among the Luo of Kenya when an unmarried person dies, compared to the one who dies married. He observes that a “married man is accorded an honor at burial such as being smeared with oil, but an unmarried man was covered with ash, symbolizing shame.”¹⁶

Marriage is reserved for those who have observed proper rites of initiation from childhood into adulthood. Without the relevant rites of passage, the life of the individual loses its significance and meaning. The ancestors resent being forgotten since this affects their immortality, and as such will visit their descendants with misfortunes and death as punishment for failure to remember them as well as an enticement to do so. The living need those who are dead for their well-being, and the dead need the living for their immortality.¹⁷ African religious life seeks to please the ancestors in order to gain necessary and relevant protection. It is also the desire of the living to be ushered into the world of ancestors when they die. It is therefore the preoccupation of African indigenous people not only to please the ancestors, but to live a life that would qualify them as ancestors.

The belief in the significance of the rites of passage continues to have a grip on the African soul to a varying degree even today. The next section seeks to show how early Christian missionaries viewed these rites, and how these rites continue to place challenges on the contemporary society.

Attitudes of the Early Missionaries on the Rites of Passage

In general, Christian missionaries’ response to African cultures in general, and religion in particular, has in the main been negative. The early Christian missionaries in southern Africa, particularly around the Cape in South Africa, dealt very harshly with some practices in the African culture. The following observation speaks to the heart of this challenge:

Since initiation was one of the foundation pillars of South Africa’s African communities, it automatically became the target of the church, European schools and governments. Vigorously and relentlessly, European institutions attacked the institution from all directions. All who practiced were regarded and labelled as uncivilised and heathen.¹⁸

In some parts of South Africa, many African Christians were forced to abstain from observance of certain rites of passage on pain of discipline or expulsion from the church.¹⁹ It would just be a matter of time before some of these practices were only observed by those who were not part of the church, and some of those who resided in the rural setting. The changing political environment with the advent of democracy and political freedom has resulted in the changing of attitude toward these traditional practices.

The cloud of demonization that has hovered over these practices is lifting, allowing Africans to observe these rites with pride and dignity. There are communities and cultures that have endeavored to contextualize these rites, especially relating to the way they are observed, while not emptying them of their religious significance. In spite of all these adaptations, there still remains some aspects of the observance of these rites that continue to create discomfort and, to a certain degree, imperil the lives of those who continue to observe them.

Contemporary Challenges with the Rites of Passage

It has been asserted in this paper that the rites of passages afforded the African a platform where cultural and religious values were enhanced. The model of inculturation supported by African theologians, which leans on continuity between the African and Christian worldview, presents some socio-theological challenges. The argued significance of these rites, which is rooted in honoring ancestors, conflicts with the view held by Seventh-day Adventists on the nature of humankind. Examining the different human life stages, one can observe some of the discomfort and challenges with which contemporary African society as well as Adventist Christianity is confronted.

Child Birth

The rites performed in most cultures after birth signify the importance of this stage in African life. Among AmaXhosa in South Africa, the ritual called imbeleko is usually performed for the child. Appropriate rituals are performed to indicate that the child is officially welcomed into the family.²⁰ The weight placed on having children has created enormous pain for those who for one reason or another are not able to have children. In most African communities, bearing children is not viewed as a choice, but an expectation by both the family and the community. Marriage is expected to be flowered with not just one or two children, but several children. The more children a woman has, the more respect she stands to be accorded by the family and the community. Those who cannot have children carry the burden of shame and guilt. The gender of the child also assumes some cultural significance in most communities. Boys are expected to retain the name of the family and also grow to have the religious right to perform required relevant rites. This puts unnecessary stress on the marriage relationship to the point of threatening its stability. In some cultures, the husbands are allowed to have more than one wife. This is done to address the issue of infertility in some cases.

Rites of Initiation

Initiation as one of the rites of passage is taken seriously in most cultures and is observed in different ways. The observance may have gone through some modernization, but the religious significance still holds strong. This ritual celebrates a child’s transition from childhood into adulthood in a given community. There are some practices that have been abandoned in some cultures, like female genital circumcision. In many tribes in South Africa, however, male circumcision is popular and has even been regulated by the government. Among the Xhosa-speaking tribes, circumcision usually takes place between the ages of fifteen and twenty. The surgical operation marks the beginning of this ritual, which is followed by seclusion and finally the coming-out ceremony of reincorporation into the community.

The completion of the initiation rite signifies readiness for the next step, which is usually marriage. It is not just one’s age that determines when a person can or should get married, but rather the fulfilled observance of circumcision. Failure to observe any one of the initiation stages renders the whole ritual incomplete, an embarrassment to the family, and is frowned at by the community.²¹

In recent years, especially in South Africa, a number of initiates have lost their lives during circumcision. A bulletin of the World Health Organization published in 2010 reflects a study that revealed the health complications resulting from traditional circumcision. The results showed that out of 10,609 initiates in the Eastern Cape (South Africa) in June 2005, “3% were admitted for circumcision-related complications. Amputations or mutilations occurred in 0.1% of the cases and 0.2% of the 10,609 young men died. Septicaemia, pneumonia and dehydration were the most frequent causes of death.”²² Almost ten years after the publication of these findings, the situation has not changed. There are reports of deaths and complications still arising from this practice.

Marriage

Mbiti’s observations made above on the significance of marriage in the African context continue to be a reality even in the contemporary society. The age of those planning to get married and the form of the ceremony may have changed, but marriage for most is still the ideal. African society in general frowns at those who are single, making the choice of being single a rare option. While the religious factors may not always be articulated, the pressure to get married creates unnecessary stress on the unmarried.

Death

More than any other single rite of passage—births, initiation, marriages—funerals

provide a focal point for family and community life. The manner in which a person dies, and the age at which they die determine how they will be buried. It is the mortuary rites that usher one into the state of benevolent mortality afforded to ancestors. The mortuary rites accompanying the dead are compulsory, and one risks the anger of the departed if these are not followed to the letter. Funerals are never viewed as an immediate family affair; the event is for the extended family and the community. Funerals do not only “serve to honor the dead, they also strengthen ties with neighbors and extended families, who may travel long distances to attend the funeral.”²³ The cost of these arrangements lies squarely on the bereaved family. In some cultures, when the father of the household is to be buried, a cow must be slaughtered, regardless of the social status of the family. These costs are not limited to the monetary value, but continue even after the funeral. In cases where the wife survives the husband, her life is impacted in many ways. She is expected to mourn the death of her husband and follow the protocol as set out by the family.

Adventist Perspective on the Rites of Passage

African Christianity has to a great extent baptized the practices embedded in the observance of the rites of passage. These rites have been shown to be connected to ancestors in one form or another in most African cultures. This is specially the case in those cultures where ancestors play a central role in the religio-cultural space. The critical question is, what should be done with ancestors who are central in these rites and help to give meaning and shape in the observance of such? The Adventist perspective on the significance of these rites is, firstly, a critique of African Christianity in its theology of inculturation. Secondly, it seeks to provide a missiological approach in outreach to adherents of African Traditional Religion or those steeped in the African worldview.

Dealing with African Worldview (Culture)

Culture is the dynamic reflection of a particular worldview, and as such there is no distinction between culture and religion in the African context. Rites of passage are regarded as part of culture, and this explains why practices such as paying of lobola (bride price) and other traditional practices are observed by some African Adventists. The view that all that is African is sinful and all that is Western is holy is a form of idolatry. All human beings were created in God’s image, and all have fallen into sin. All cultures are fallen, but would also reflect some good virtues as well as evil tendencies. The gospel does not presuppose the superiority of any culture to another, but evaluates all cultures according to its own criteria of truth and righteousness, and insists on moral absolutes in every culture.²⁴ The gospel does not seek to preserve but to transform cultures. African Adventist should exercise the right to inculturate some of African customs. This means that those elements that are opposed to the Bible will be discarded. The custom of lobola, which is the equivalent of bride price, can be regulated and observed by Adventists in areas where this is a practice.²⁵

Nature of Humankind and Ancestors

The Seventh-day Adventist Church espouses a monistic view of human nature. The dead are regarded as sleeping and awaiting the resurrection. This sleep is unconscious. Summing up Adventist monistic anthropology, Cairus writes:

All occurrences of the words “soul” and “spirit” in the Bible can be understood, in context, as referring to functions of the individual psyche or the activity of the whole person. This is true both in the OT of the terms of nepes or ruah, and in the NT of the corresponding terms psyche and pneuma, which are translated “soul” or “spirit.” In no single instance do we read of an immortal entity within man, a soul or human spirit that is able to function independently from the material body.²⁶

These forebears cannot act as mediators, for death has brought an end to their vitality and their existence. Ancestors are therefore unable to play a role in the lives of the living because they are no more, they have ceased to live and can neither bless nor curse the living. The rites of passage, however they are observed, can be disconnected from honoring of ancestors. They could be seen as cultural practices with no religious significance. In this case how and when or whether they are observed ceases to be an issue. Removing the African focus on ancestors is one thing, but filling the void with the meaning of who Jesus is goes a long way in producing biblically-based African Adventism. This particular engagement seeks to be relevant to the culture while being true to the Bible.

Adventism and Some Rites of Passage

In principle, the Adventist view of human nature compels members to shy away from any ritual or practice that is related to ancestor cult. However, the issue of ancestor cult is not just a “doctrinal problem but a socio-psychological one as well.”²⁷ It is a fact that some African Adventists continue to feel threatened by ancestors in spite of their doctrinal view of human nature.²⁸ This can be seen in the observance of some rites, and the meaning attached to the same that may conflict with the Adventist theology.

Marriage

A biblical understanding of marriage may bring relief to Adventists who are confronted with the traditional understanding of marriage. Marriage from a biblical perspective is a close union between a male and a female. The sacredness of marriage and its monogamous nature demands a strict form of exclusivity. This exclusiveness entails not only prohibition against extra marital infidelity, but premarital sexual relationships as well. Thomas Damonyi commenting on Malachi 2:13-16 echoes that, “Whoever commits adultery does not break the arbitrary relationship but destroys an all-embracing union.”²⁹ Procreation formed part of the purpose of marriage, especially for Adam and Even as this was the only way they could multiply and fill the earth. This appears to have been a divine expectation for the first couple and not just a matter of choice. In light of this command, a childless marriage was viewed in a negative light and often taken as a sign of a curse, especially in the Old Testament. An unwarranted inference could be that all married couples must have children. This clearly is not taught in scripture, even though children in marriage were valued.

The Adventist Church holds marriage and family in high regard. Through the department of Family Ministries, it seeks to nurture families and enrich marriages through seminars and many other avenues. It also seeks to educate its members on what the Bible teaches about marriage and family as seen in its basic doctrinal formulation reflected in its official documents.³⁰

Initiation

The rite of passage that signifies one’s transition from childhood into adulthood is represented by the rite of adult baptism in the Adventist Church. While there may be families that observe traditional adult circumcision in some African cultures, this is officially discouraged by the church. Adult baptism properly understood would replace the need to observe the traditional initiation rites as practiced in a given culture. The church still needs to give guidance to such families on how to deal with the observance of this rite. Through baptism, one is adopted into the family of God and becomes a member of His body.

Conclusion

Rites of passage occupy a very crucial space in the life of an African. These rites continue to be observed both by Christians and those embracing African Indigenous Religion. One of the challenges facing the Adventist Church in particular is the centrality of ancestor veneration or worship which informs these rites. The Adventist Church is then expected to respond to the observance of these rites by applying a theology that attempts to be contextual without being syncretistic. Guidelines on how these rites should be observed, if at all, as informed by a clear biblical standpoint are to be developed. Rites such as baptism are compulsory in the life of the Christian believer. However, cultural rites cannot be viewed as compulsory, but rather church members’ practice of them should continue to be viewed with caution.

Sources

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Notes

1. See, Mark 16:16.↩

2. Tom F. Driver, The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites That Transform Our Lives and Our Communities (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1991).↩

3. Daniel Kasomo, “An Analysis of the Rites of Passage and Their Relation to Christianity,” International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 1, no. 8 (December 2009): 156-166.↩

4. Ibid.↩

5. Richard J. Gehman, African Traditional Religion in Biblical Perspective (Nairobi, Kenya: Kesho Publications, 1989), 5.↩

6. Aloysius Muzzanganda Lugira, African Religion: World Religions (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2004), 49.↩

7. Ibid.↩

8. John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (London: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1969), 77-78.↩

9. See Aloysius Muzzanganda Lugira, African Religion: World Religions (New York: Facts on File, Inc. 2004), 49.↩

10. Laurenti Magesa, Anatomy of Inculturation: Transforming the Church in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 260.↩

11. Many theologians support the continuity model. Magessa asserts that both forms of spirituality represent a “human attempt to relate to the transcendence of God” (2010:68). A Nigerian Jesuit theologian, Agbonkhianmeghe Orobator, in his book Theology Brewed in an African Pot, argues for a link between saints and ancestors (2008:113). Benezet Bujo, a diocesan priest from Zaire, elaborates further on Christ as the Ancestor. He concludes by saying that “Africans who live in communion with their ancestors should not think that becoming a Christian means abandoning the ancestors” (1992:129). Bujo’s basis for the above statement is that “biological life comes to us directly from our ancestors, but our real life, the life of the spirit, comes to us through Jesus Christ…” (1992:129). Collis Machoko, an Anglican priest from Zimbabwe, currently (2015) teaching at Hunting University in Canada, argues for a “Mudzimu Mukuru” par excellence Christology. In an extended research project that lasted for ten years (between 1990 and 2000), he interviewed Anglican bishops, priests, and laity as to their views on Christianity and ancestors. This research led him to observe and conclude that Christianity is not the only path to Mwari (God) (Machoko 2010:123). Charles Nyamiti, a Catholic theologian from Tanzania, East Africa, examines the African idea of ancestors in his book Christ as Our Ancestor. There is still room for African ancestors, even in African Christology. In this understanding the African belief in ancestors and Christian understanding of the saints share some commonality. Eugene Lapointe, a French-Canadian Catholic priest who spent many years serving within the context of the Basotho people in southern Africa, believes Africans can worship both Christ and ancestors. Buti Tlhagale, Archbishop of Bloemfontein in South Africa, contributes two chapters on different topics in the book, The Church and African Culture, edited by Mohlomi Makobane. The first of the two chapters investigates ancestors and paschal mystery. Tlhagale observes that sacrifice to the ancestors plays a pivotal role among Africans (1995:53). This ritual involves the slaughtering of an animal as a way of communicating with the ancestors (1995:55). He asks the question whether this blood ceremony should be limited to the home and advocates for an incorporation of this into the Catholic Church.↩

12. J. Kiernan, “African Traditional Religions in South Africa,” in Living Faiths in South Africa, eds. Martin Prozesky and John de Gruchy (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1995), 20.↩

13. Ibid., 21.↩

14. See Emefie Ikenga-Metuh, Comparative Studies of African Religion (Onitsha, Nigeria: IMICO Publishers, 1987), 147.↩

15. See Mbiti, 141.↩

16. Laurenti Magesa, Anatomy of Inculturation: Transforming the Church in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 82.↩

17. J. Kiernan, “African Traditional Religions in South Africa,” in Living Faiths in South Africa, Martin Prozesky and John de Gruchy (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995), 5-27.↩

18. T. A. Matoho, M. Makatsha, E. E. Obioha, “Continuity in the Traditional Initiation Practice of Boys and Girls in Contemporary Southern Africa Society,” Studies of Tribes and Tribals 7, no. 2 (October 3, 2017): 105-113, accessed September 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/0972639X.2009.11886600.↩

19. Wallace G. Mills, “Missionaries, Xhosa Clergy and the Suppression of Traditional Customs,” in Missions and Christianity in South African History, eds. Henry Bredekamp and Robert Ross (South Africa: Witwatersrand University Press, 1995), 153-167.↩

20. Ibid.↩

21. Archibald N. N. Ngxamngxa, “The Function of Circumcision Among the Xhosa-speaking Tribes in Historical Perspective,” in Man: Anthropological Essays Presented to O. F. Raum, ed. E. J. de Jager, (Cape Town: C. Struik Pty. Ltd., 1971), 55.↩

22. Andrea Wilcken, Thomas Keil, and Bruce Dick. Traditional Male Circumcision in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Systematic Review of Prevalence and Complications. Published online: October 29, 2010, pages 907-914.↩

23. A. Case, A. Garrib, A. Menendez, and A. Olgiati, “Paying the Piper: The High Cost of Funeral in South Africa,” National Bureau of Economic Research, October 2008, accessed September 26, 2021, http://www.nber.org/papers/w14456.↩

24. David J. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally; An Introduction to Missionary Communication (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991), 118.↩

25. See Jongimpi Papu, “The High Cost of Lobola: Divine Marriage and Challenge to Self-assess,” in Adventist Families: A Pan-African Perspective, eds. Willie Oliver and Elaine Oliver (Review and Herald Publishing Association, 2019), 68-83.↩

26. A. E. Cairus, “Doctrine of Man,” in Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology, eds. Raoul Dederon, Nancy Vyhmeister, and G. Reid (Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 2000).↩

27. Kwabena Donkor, “Ancestor Worship, Biblical Anthropology, and Spiritualistic Manifestation in Africa,” in The Church, Culture and Spirits: Adventism in Africa, ed. Kwabena Donkor (Hagerstown, MD: Bible Research Institute, 2011).↩

28. The Biblical Research Institute of the General Conference conducted a study by various African theologians and produced a book edited by K. Donkor, The Church, Culture and Spirits: Adventism in Africa, in 2011. It is clear from this book that African Adventists in general are not insulated against the practice and observance of some rites that are connected to the cult of ancestors.↩

29. See Thomas Damonyi, “Sexuality and Marriage from a Theological Perspective,” 112-113, as he comments on Malachi 2:13-16 where he says; “According to biblical understanding, adultery is a serious misdemeanour; whoever commits adultery does not break an arbitrary relationship but destroys an all-embracing union…” Again, he comments on I Corinthians 7:34 wherein he asserts that “the Bible advises unmarried couples to refrain from any intimate relationship before marriage.” Marriage Biblical and Theological Aspects, eds. Ekkehardt Mueller and Elias Brasis de Souza (Hagerstown, MD: Review and Publishing Association, 2015).↩

30. “… Mutual love, honor, respect, and responsibility are the fabric of this relationship, which is to reflect the love, sanctity, closeness, and permanence of the relationship between Christ and His church… Parents are to bring up their children to love and obey the Lord. By their example and their words, they are to teach that Christ is a loving disciplinarian, ever tender and caring, who wants them to become members of His body, the family of God. Increasing family closeness is one of the earmarks of the final gospel message.” Seventh-day Adventists Believe: A Biblical Exposition of Fundamental Doctrines (Boise, ID: Pacific Press, 1988), 329.↩